Difference between English and Japanese dialects

Introduction Modern literatures have defined language in several ways. All those definitions are right as long as their main or central focus is communication. Language is therefore a purely human method of communication that is free of instincts. It is through language that human beings can communicate ideas, emotions, and desires by way of a system of voluntarily produced symbols (Syal, P. Jindal, D. 4). Different people in the world speak different languages. One of the reasons is because of geographical factors and difference in culture.Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on Difference between English and Japanese dialects specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Japanese people speak Japanese language simply because the language developed in that particular region of the earth. On the other hand, English is spoken mainly in the US, Great Britain, Australia and the commonwealth countries simply because the langua ge first developed in England and later spread to their colonies by virtue of their great colonial influence. This paper discusses issues related to language differences and the accompanying difficulties that non native speakers find it hard to pronounce some words in a language that is not their mother tongue. In particular, the Japanese find it hard to pronounce English words due to a number of reasons. Historical background The Japanese language, also known as Nihon-go, is spoken by over 125 million people who live in the island state of Japan. In its indigenous form, the language is known as either Nihon or Nippon. This language took shape in the early part of the 20th century based on the dialect spoken in some parts of Tokyo, the capital city of Japan. At present, this common language is used for educational purposes and mass communication. The language is actually understood throughout the country. However, other distinct regional dialects are used for daily purposes. There a re four major dialects in the whole of Japan (Iwasaki, S. 1). These dialects are the Eastern, Western, Kyushu, and Ryukyu dialects. The eastern dialect includes a population of 12 million people of the Tokyo dialect. This dialect is found from the eastern to the north eastern parts of the largest island of Honshu and the northernmost island of Hokkaido. The Western dialect group which includes Kyoto and Osaka dialects, is found in the west and south west of Honshu, and also in Shikoku. The Kyushu dialect group is found in the southernmost island of Kyushu. The Ryuku dialect group is found in the Okinawan Archipelago extending off the Kyushu Island to the east of Taiwan between the East China Sea and the Philippine Sea. The dialect contains many older forms of the language, but the number of speakers of the original Ryuku dialect is gradually diminishing among the over 1,200,000 inhabitants. The island of Hokkaido is also inhabited by another dialect called Ainu. This language is how ever not affiliated with the Japanese language. It is important to note that the language is almost getting extinct with only a handful of remaining speakers.Advertising Looking for research paper on linguistics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More There are several facts that prevent a conclusive determination of the Altaic origin of the Japanese language. These facts include the phonological simplicity of Japanese compared to other Altaic languages. Japanese language is characterized by simple phonological systems. It can also be described as a language with an Altaic superstratum and elements of an Austronesian substratum. This language can also be described as an amalgam with the Altaic and Austronesian stocks that are equally mixed. It is important to note that archeological evidence indicate that Japan was inhabited by people of the Jomon culture between 7500 to 300 B.C.E., though there are some indications that there were s ome pre Jomoan inhabitants before this period. The Jomoan language is believed to be some type of Austronesian language which is likely to have provided the substratum of the Japanese language. The background of the Japanese language cannot be complete without some explanations of the Yamata Kingdom which appeared in the present day Nara region of central Japan. This kingdom took control of Japan. From this time on, the cultural influence that Japan received from the Yamato, a Chinese Kingdom cannot be overemphasized. The adoption of the Chinese characters into the Japanese language was especially important because it chartered the future course for the written tradition in Japan. Thus, the language uses both phonetic and semantic values whose origin is Chinese (Iwasaki, S. 3). Methodology It is actually justifiable to venture outside linguistic materials and use anthropometric, archeological, and ethnological approaches to Japanese cultural history, not to solve the problem of lang uage relationship but to suggest fruitful lines of comparison. This paper therefore reviews literature from linguistic sources and non linguistic sources. Taking into account that the historical background of the Japanese language cannot be complete without including some aspects of archeology and the other subjects mentioned in the preceding sentences of this paragraph. It is therefore clear from the data that there are some indications of somatic variation along a cline running from northeastern to southwestern Japan. This paper also discusses issues related to the ways in which English language differs from the Japanese language in several grammatical aspects. The main sources used in this study are published literature and some internet sources.Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on Difference between English and Japanese dialects specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Data analysis The data gained from this st udy can be analyzed in order to come up with a short but comprehensive review of the sources of the data. Taking into consideration that books and internet sources were used, a short summary will compile this data in order to make it easier for the audience to comprehend the various aspects and discussions covered in this edition. For starters, the Japanese language is composed of various forms of phonetics in its phonology. The huge difference between the Japanese language and English language is the main factor that affects the Japanese people so that they do not pronounce English words correctly. From the information gained in the literature, it can be deduced that the Japanese language is such that no sharp distinction exists between singular and plural. There is no distinction between masculine, neuter, and feminine, there are no articles, postpositions are used and the distinction between nouns and the stems of adjectives is unclear. In addition, there are no comparative or su perlatives of adjectives, the basic forma of verbs are used as nouns and imperatives of verbs, and there is also no expression in the passive form. The Japanese language does not have relative pronouns. The adjectives and adverbs come before nouns and verbs. Last but not least, an interrogative sentence is formed by placing an interrogative word at the end (Smith, R. Beardsley, R. 19). The above paragraph actually shows how the Japanese language differs from English. It is also worth noting that the phonology of this language is simply the biggest contributing factor that makes it hard for Japanese people to pronounce some English words. The various dialects also contribute to this issue. Phonetics and phonology of Japanese Most societies which have developed or adopted a writing system have shown some degree of interest in pronunciation or phonological analysis. While spoken language is typically unconscious, writing is far less so, for the product remains before us for inspection and reconsideration (Clark et al.398). Therefore, the existence of a written form of expression not only invites reflection on the relationship between speech and writing but also creates a distance between speakers and their language that encourages them to treat language as an object of analysis. Symbols are also used in many languages which also includes the Japanese. For instance, the Japanese Hiragana syllabary has in principle distinct symbol for each syllable of the language. Various Semitic writing systems either omit the vowels or write them above or below the preceding consonant.Advertising Looking for research paper on linguistics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More There are so many examples of Japanese phonetics as evident in the phonology of the Japanese language. The language is full of syllables that are moraic nasals, laminal, voiced as well as voiceless stops. There are also some fricatives, apical post alveolar flaps and the compressed velars. The above characteristics are mainly consonant based. Vowels are actually pronounced as mophthongs. This is different from English yet some of the vowels such as /u/ are pronounced as their Spanish counterparts. The vowels of Japanese language have a phonemic length that is distinctly short or very long. It is also important to note that all vowels in this language are treated as occurring at the same time with that of mora. For this reason, those vowels that are phonetically long are actually treated as a series of two similar short vowels. The language also permits long series of phonetic vowels. These vowels however do not intervene consonants. Only that the pitch accent breaks assist in tracki ng the time especially in identical vowels. Difficulties Languages differ in the ways in which consonants and vowels sounds can be grouped into syllables in words. English language tolerates several consonants before and after single vowels. For instance, the word ‘strength’ has three consonant sounds before and three after a single vowel sound. In Japanese, the ratio of consonant and vowel sounds in syllables and in words is much more even. Speakers of such language find it difficult to pronounce these kinds of English words. To an Englishman, such words are natural, that is, they are within the sounds and sound sequences whose mastery is acquired in early childhood as part of ones mother tongue (Kharbe, A. 75). Since English is often the second or third language in the Japanese context, pronunciation of these words is not natural. This causes them to have some aspects of non native pronunciation of English which comes about as a result of the non native users of the E nglish language carrying the intonations from their first language into the English language. Japanese speakers may also carry phonological processes and pronunciation rules into the English language. For these reasons, they may not be able to pronounce English words properly due to the influence of their first language. There is also a difference between the Japanese language and English language. In Japanese, high vowels are voiceless between or, in final position, following a voiceless obstruent (Lodge, K. 62). This is also one of the reasons that cause the Japanese people to have some difficulties in pronunciation of certain English words which may contain such kinds of vowels. Connections between the two languages In a crude sense, the grammatical structures of Japanese and English can be regarded as polar opposites. This is because of the dramatic differences in participant orientations to turn to construction and projection in the respective languages. Specifically in contras t to English grammar which massively enables early projectability of the social action which might occupy a turn, the grammatical structure of Japanese permits the incremental transformation of a turn-in-progress, and overwhelmingly results in a later arrival of the point at which the emerging shape of a turn can be known. It is worth noting that the particular delay in the Japanese language is compensated by a potentially greater degree of certitude. The certitudes enable participants to localize turn-endings through the use of devices which mark possible transition-relevance places. From the above paragraph, one can comfortably state that there are ways in which grammar has a critical bearing on turn-taking in general and turn projection in particular. In this scenario, turn-taking is a good example in which the differences and/or similarities between the two languages can be established. The syntactic English structure is an important resource that participants draw on to project a probable shape of an emerging turn often well before the turn comes to a possible completion. The normative organization of the syntax also allows the projection of possible transition-relevance places. Transition relevance places are those places where a turn is likely to come to an end. Thus, the immediate relation between grammar and turn taking in English is partly played out in the ways syntax has consequences for the projectability properties of turns. In Japanese however, less is known about the implications of cross-linguistic variations in grammar for turn taking operations. Some Japanese literatures suggest that there are numerous differences between the grammatical structures of English and Japanese. A good example of this situation is discrepant ‘standard’ word order of the two languages. In this situation, there is a striking contrast in the use of prepositions in English as opposed to post positional particles in Japanese (Tanaka, H. 104). Differences b etween Japanese and English language There are a number of differences between the Japanese and English languages. Japanese language requires special attention in some particular areas especially when one is translating from English to Japanese or vice versa. The internal organization of a written text can be very different in Japanese and English. English is particularly linear, because its individual sentences move a central idea forward one step at a time. It is common to find Japanese writers who have not been influenced by Western notions of writing adopting a spiral approach, thereby repeating what has already been said as they gradually converge on their target. This can only result in an extended paragraph with only one full stop and numerous commas in the sentences. It is thus imperative for the translator to try and grasp the target of the information given, organize the paragraph into segments of suitable length, eliminate redundant portions, and render what is left into English (Sofer, M. 57). Japanese and English do not operate in the same way. In Japanese, the verb comes at the end of the sentence while in English, the verb is normally at the center of the sentence. For this reason, one has to jump back and forth to pick up the subjects and the verb, and reorganize the whole thing when translating Japanese into English. The Japanese language also disregards plural forms for definite and indefinite articles, and for verb tenses, all of which are often ignored and have to be figured out from the context (Sofer, M. 57). It is worth noting that despite all these difficulties, more than a few westerners have managed to pursue an effective career as translators of this particular language pair. Conclusion The link which language users as folk etymologists make as when they refer to the bottom of a mountain as the foot of a mountain is actually based upon a conceived similarity between the structure of the human body and a mountain. This is just one of the reasons why languages differ with geographical locations. Modern literatures have defined language in several ways. All those definitions are right as long as their main or central focus is communication. Language is therefore a purely human method of communication that is free of instincts. The Japanese language, also known as Nihon-go, is spoken by over 125 million people who live in the island state of Japan. In its indigenous form, the language is known as either Nihon or Nippon. There are four major dialects in the whole of Japan. These dialects are the Eastern, Western, Kyushu, and Ryukyu dialects. In a crude sense, the grammatical structures of Japanese and English can be regarded as polar opposites. This is because of the dramatic differences in participant orientations to turn to construction and projection in the respective languages. Mother tongue influence is a major factor that contributes to the difficulties experienced by the Japanese when they pronounce English w ords. Works Cited Clark John et al. An Introduction to Phonetics and Phonology. Blackwell Publishing, Oxford, 2007. Dirven, Rene. Cognitive Exploration of Language and Linguistics. John Benjamin Publishing Company, Amsterdam, 2004. Iwasaki, Shoichi. Japanese. John Benjamin Publishing Company, Amsterdam, 2002 Lodge, Ken. A Critical Introduction to Phonetics. Continuum International Publishing Group, London, 2009. Kharbe, Ambreen. English Language and Literary Criticism. Discovery Publishing House PVT. Ltd, New Delhi. Smith, Robert Beardsley, Richard. Japanese Culture: Its Development and Characteristics. Routledge, London, 2004. Sofer, Morry. The Translator’s Handbook. Ed. 6. Schreiber Publishing, Rockville, 2006. Syal, Pushpinder Jindal, D.V. An Introduction to Linguistics: Language, Grammar and Semantics. Prentice Hall of India, New Delhi, 2007. Tanaka, Hiroko. Turn-Taking in Japanese Conversation: A Study in Grammar and Interaction. John Benjamin, Amsterdam, 1999. 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Princess Alexandria Victoria essays

Princess Alexandria Victoria essays Princess Alexandria Victoria was born on May 24,1819 to the duke and duchess of Kent. Unfortunately the duke passed away shortly after her birth. Therefore victories upbringing was left in the hands of her mother, who had her own interest in mind. Victorias uncle died and she took over the thrown at the legal age of eighteen. On June 20,1837 Lord Chamberland told Victoria of her uncles death. (Ibscom.com) At the time Victoria and her mother were living at Kenningston palace. Victoria Knew that a great responsibility had fell into her hands and she had a lot to learn. Queen Victorias first Prime Minister Lord Melbourne educated her in politics and Government. (World book). Victoria was later crowned in Westminster Abbey on June 28, 1839 (St. John Neville p.7) Soon after Victoria was crowned Queen she married her cousin Prince Albert of saxe-coburg-gotha, The agreements took place on Febuary10.1890 at the chapel royal, St.James place. (St John Neville. P.17) Victorias reign of sixty three years and seven months was the longest reign of any British monarch. ( St.John NervilleP.7) Not only did the population have a 50% increase but the local government also became mainly democratic. Not only did Queen victories family love her but the people of her kingdom loved her too. Great explorers name a city, lake, and desert after the Queen to show their appreciation of her wonderful term as Queen. Victoria became the empress of India in 1876 she ruled the largest empire the world had known. (St. John. P 17). Several years pasted by and Victoria was completely devastated by Albert death, which occurred on December 14, 1861. Queen Victoria was so heart broken by her husbands death that she stayed out of the social atmosphere unless she had to go out for a special occasion. When the Queen Did make an appearance into the public eye they could tell that...

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Why Do Financial Markets And Financial Intermediaries Exist Finance Essay

Why Do Financial Markets And Financial Intermediaries Exist Finance Essay As a branch of economics, finance has its own research method, and mainly studies financial sector in a national economy. Content of finance can be summarised as currency issue and return; deposit absorb and withdraw; loan disburse and collection; gold, silver and foreign exchange trading; securities issue and transfer; insurance; trusts; domestic and international monetary settlement and other economic activities. (John, G. Edward, S. 1960) In short, finance is the activity about funds allocation. The place which people engaged in financial activities and funds to flow in was called financial marketing. Although it is not perfect, it relate to a broad area and range of economics. Finance can be divided into two forms, which are direct finance and indirect finance. The difference between these two forms is that whether financial intermediaries get involved. Financial intermediaries are people or institutions which play the roles of intermediary are people or institutions which play the roles of intermediary or bridge between capital supplier and borrower in financial markets. However, to analysis and explain what is the role of financial market and financial intermediaries and why exist, are the main purpose of this essay. Main body 1. What is financial market. Financial markets are the markets where capital providers and capital demanders transaction through the credit instruments. Broadly speaking, financial markets are the markets can achieve monetary loans and funds allocate, deal with trading of a variety of instruments and securities. More complete definition of the financial markets is: financial markets are organisations which can trading financial assets and determine the prices of financial assets. 2. The introduction to financial market. The component of financial markets are very complicated, it is a large system which was composed of many different markets. Whereas, generally based on the trading tools period in financial markets, financial markets can be divided in money market and capital market. Money markets are the places that for trading short-term debt securities and capital markets are the places that for trading medium or long-term securities. Financial markets also can be classified according to several different features they present: 1) Type of asset traded. There are two kind of financial securities deal by financial markets, one is bonds which issued by government, banks or corporations and another one is equity shares which by government or any kind of public company. 2) The means of settlement include cash market and forward market. Cash market, the place for people to decide of price and settlement all take place today. Forward market, for people to agree price on today, and settlement takes place sometime in the future. 3) The obligation to exchange. The buyers have to pay the price which been settled before for asset on the particular date in the future market. The buyers have right to decided whether to buy asset on the date and at the price agreed in the past. 4) The organisational structure of the market. By this way, financial markets can be divided into regulated markets and over the counter market. In regul ated markets, the buyer and seller of each transaction have to enter a contract in exchange such as clearing house; the contract is represented by the clearing house. In an over the counter market, there is no clearing house and dealers just trade between themselves. 5) The method of sale or pricing. Account to this feature, financial market can be classified into market makers and dealers market. 6) The nature of transaction. In accordance with whether the assets traded are newly issued or already issued, financial market be plotted out in two parts, primary market and secondary market. Primary market is the issue of new securities market and secondary market is already issued, in circulation in the securities trading market. Financial markets have direct and significant impact in all aspects of economic activities. Such as individual wealth, enterprise management, and the efficiency of economic operation are all directly dependent on the activities of financial market. 3. What is financial intermediation. Financial intermediaries are the units of economy that absorb money from economic agents with a surplus fund and transfer it to economic agents with a deficit and provide various kinds of financial services. The main functions of financial intermediaries are credit creation, settlement of payment, the distribution of resources, information provided and risk management. 4. The introduction to financial intermediaries. As the medium of capital supplier and capital requester during the process of financial intermediary in the financial market. It has been divided into two parts by John Gurley and Edward Shaw. (1960) They are monetary system and non-monetary intermediaries. As the role of intermediary, monetary system ¿Ã‚ ½Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½s main function is purchase primary securities and the creation of money. Non-monetary intermediaries perform only the purchase primary securities and the creation of monetary claims on their intermediary role. This kind of claim is about the form of savings deposit, shares, common stock and other form of funds. There are five main categories of financial intermediaries, deposit institutions, insurance companies, mutual funds or unit trusts, investment companies or investment trusts and pension funds. These five main categories of financial intermediaries carry out the intermediation function according to different methods. 1) Deposit institutions which with the main types like commercial banks, savings institutions and building societies, can take deposits from units in economic agents with a surplus fund and lend the money gathered to economic agents in deficit. 2) Insurance companies are non-deposit institutions which can gathering funds from insurance applicant and invest them in the capital markets. 3) Mutual funds in US or Unit trusts in UK are non-deposit financial institutions; they invest in the equity and bond markets use the money that get by rising from the public. 4) Investment companies in US and investment trusts in US are publicly quoted firms that invest in financial securit ies. They put the funds from individual investors together and invest them amount a number of securities or other assets. 5) Pension funds. A pension fund is an asset pool that employees put their money in during the non-working years when employees retired. Funds always gathered by employers and handed over to pension funds. In the modern market economy, financial activities were closely with the economic operation. However, almost all the financial activities treat financial intermediaries as the center. That is why financial intermediaries play an important role in economic activities. 5. Why financial markets and financial intermediaries exist. Both financial markets and financial intermediaries can facilitate the transfer of funds from surplus to deficit units. The reason why borrowers and lenders have a need for financial markets is that financial marks have two functions, pricing function and discipline function. Financial markets can provide both buyers and sellers a fair evaluation of the assets they are buying or selling. Pricing function can avoid traders been deceived into trading or investing. Financial markets are controlled by it can help financial markets to stop issuers of securities (borrowers) doing the activities which been considered that harmful to the value of their assets. Although financial markets such securities are bought and sold, it sometimes cannot guarantee that to transfer enough capital from lenders to borrowers. Because of two clearly barriers can be identified to the direct finance process. First one is difficulty and expense of matching the complex needs of individual lenders and borrows. Second one is the financial need of lenders and borrowers are complete incompatible. Lenders require to have minimisation of risk and costs, maximisation of returns and translate financial claim into cash with the value more than or equals to capital value itself. Whereas borrowers hope the cost of funds at a particular for a period of time can be lowest. In order to deal with these problems, financial markets need financial intermediaries exist. Size transformation, maturity transformation, risk transformation, liquidity provision, costs reduction and provision of a payments system are six main functions that can help financial intermediaries to be as a bridge links borrowers and lenders easier. The explanation of those six functions will be displayed below. A) Transform the size. Because amount of the deposit which saved by depositor a small than amount of loans required by borrowers. It will be difficult for lenders to pool their money together. However, financial intermediaries can collect small amount of money and put them together to lend to people who need large amount of money. B) Maturity transformation. Most depositors prefer putting their money in short-term for safety, but borrowers generally need long-term loans for their business. Financial intermediaries can satisfy both savers and lenders by working capital. C) Risk tr ansformation. Financial intermediaries would like to take the risks if can be offered some compensation. It ensures the implementation of many risky (but profitable) projects. Because savers not willing to take great risk when they investing money but borrowers choose to borrow money when doing risk projects. D) Liquidity provision. Cash have liquidity because of saving or withdraw by depositors; it is not safe for lenders to hold highly illiquid assets to finance borrowers if financial intermediaries are not exist. E) Costs reduction. Financial intermediaries broaden the choice of the transaction side of trading, increase transaction rate under a given terms of transaction costs. It not only reduces the cost of time spent on the road, but also reduces the contingency transaction and waiting time cost in some extent. Thus, greatly reduce the transaction cost of unit. F) Provision of a payments system. Financial intermediaries provide a payments system for some non-cash payment such as cheques, debit cards and so on. Hans Wijkander (1992) thought that the main reason why financial intermediaries exist is a result of asymmetric information and expensive information products. (Hans 1992) The first category of information asymmetric is compare to other investors entrepreneurs have the information advantage of their investment, and other investors have to spend some resources for access to information. Another type of asymmetric information is about the profit which already gets by investment project. Entrepreneurs can as well as other investors have to spend time and money in order to know it. Information production on technically have professional features. It makes some individuals may become agents of other investors, is product information and obtain benefit. Therefore, this arrangement have some problem which is how can investors ensure that their agents have done their best to pass on their information. When these agents become financial intermediaries, the problem of asymmetric information ca n be solved. Financial intermediaries can gather money from public investors and invest. Under this contract structure, ethical issues have been solved. (Hans, 1992) In a word, financial markets as an important part of unified market system, can offer securities are bought and sold, and use financial intermediation to achieve the goal of transfer money from economic agents with an extra fund to economic agents with a deficit. In carrying out this function, financial intermediates can help to improve the level of investment and savings. From the lending perspective, financial intermediaries engaged in investment or primary securities investment business, its unit cost can be much lower than most of individual investor ¿Ã‚ ½Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½s investment. Only in respect of its asset size, can greatly reduce risk through diversification. Financial intermediaries have a large number of depositors which can guarantee normal payment requirement. Because of the importance of scale economy, assets and liabilities of financial intermediaries are highly specialized. These specializations not only improve their competitiveness, but also help increase their chance of survival. Information economists and transaction cost theorists thought uncertainty and the existence of transaction led to emergence of financial intermediaries, and make them have various functions like reduce transaction costs; eliminate uncertainty and the resulting risk. (Web 1) In the modern market economy, no matter trade of means of consumption or means of production, technical and labour mobility etc., they all have to be achieved by currency transfer and closely with financial markets. In this sense, developments of financial markets have a pivotal role in restricting of the development of the whole market system. Conclusion In conclusion, financial market and financial intermediates exits to guarantee the normal operation of economic activity. Although financial markets and financial intermediaries have very important functions on the healthy development of economic and society, there are some arguments of them. Like the story of  ¿Ã‚ ½Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½blind men touching an elephant ¿Ã‚ ½Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½, someone sees a part of the world, and overstate it, believes that he is the only correct one. In the financial markets, this kind of argument happens every day. Lot of people make decision just based on the information they have exposure to and does not consider the information from other angles. After subprime mortgage crisis, former chairman of the Federal Reserve Alan Greenspan said that  ¿Ã‚ ½Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½we have done the best, but you cannot believe that we know everything and never make mistakes ¿Ã‚ ½Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½forecasting cannot always 100% accurate. ¿Ã‚ ½Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½(Gao mu, 2009) It is can be seen that though th e people wisdom as the characters Greenspan, they make mistake in the view of financial markets. This shows that financial markets are difficult to mastery. To find out a way to forecast financial markets and avoid crisis can be an issue for the whole financial systems.

Motivation in the Classroom Essay -- Teaching Education

Motivation in the Classroom Students want and need work that enables them to demonstrate and improve their sense of themselves as competent and successful human beings. This is the drive toward mastery. But success, while highly valued in our society, can be more or less motivational. People who are highly creative, for example, actually experience failure far more often than success. Biehler (p. 225) claims that studies show that when CAI used in conjunction with a teacher's lessons, is particularly beneficial for low-achieving and young students. Before we can use success to motivate our students to produce high-quality work, we must meet three conditions: 1. We must clearly articulate the criteria for success and provide clear, immediate, and constructive feedback. 2. We must show students that the skills they need to be successful are within their grasp by clearly and systematically modeling these skills. 3. We must help them see success as a valuable aspect of their personalities. All this seems obvious enough, but it is remarkable how often we fail to meet these conditions for our students. Take skills. Can you remember any crucial skills that you felt you did not successfully master because they were not clearly taught? Was it finding themes in literature? Reading and interpreting primary texts? Thinking through nonroutine math problems? Typically, skills like these are routinely assigned or assumed, rather than systematically modeled or practiced by teachers. So how can we help students master such skills? When teaching your students to find themes, for example, deliberately model interpretation. Ask your students to give you a poem you have never seen, and then interpret it both for and with them. If they are reading primary texts, use what we call the "main idea" strategy. Teach them how to find the topic (usually a noun or noun phrase), the main idea (a sentence that states the text's position on the topic), and reasons or evidence to support the main idea. If students are concerned about writer's block, remember that perhaps the most difficult task of a teacher is to teach how to think creatively. In regards to behavior modification it's noted in Biehler(p.237), in the case of primary students there is a possibility that some students will come to realize that the teacher rewards them only when they've done what she... ... arouses intense curiosity? By making sure it features two defining characteristics: the information about a topic is fragmentary or contradictory, and the topic relates to students' personal lives. Students then work together in-groups, retracing the steps scientists took in weighing the available evidence to arrive at an explanation. We have seen student’s work diligently for several days dealing with false hypotheses and red herrings, taking great delight when the solutions begin to emerge. As for topics that relate to students' lives, the connection here cannot be superficial; it must involve an issue or idea that is both manageable and unresolved. We must ask, With what issues are adolescents wrestling? How can we connect them to our curriculum? Figure 1 illustrates some possibilities for adolescents. Bibliography: References Snowman, Jack/Biehler, Robert (2000) Psychology Applied to Teaching Houghton Mifflin Co. Colin, Baker (1996) Foundations of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism Multilingual Matters (pgs 105-143) Cummins, Jim (1996) Negotiating Identities: Education for Empowerment in a Diverse Society California Association for Bilingual Education